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The Turn of the Century: Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt (1798 - 1801)

Bonaparte's policies in Egypt had three objectives: First, to free Egypt from the arbitrary rule of the Mamelukes, who had plundered the land; second, to set up a purely Egyptian regime at Cairo; and finally, to effect these changes without arousing the ire of the Porte. These were contradictory, almost irreconcilable goals. Talleyrand had for a while entertained the notion of travelling to Constantinople himself in order to ensure that Selim III would continue to favour France. Ultimately he decided against this since he did not want to jeopardize his career by fostering foolish projects.

After he had defeated the Mamelukes near the Pyramids on 21st July 1798 and their Generals Ibrahim and Murad had fled respectively to the Sinai Peninsula and Upper Egypt, Bonaparte entered Cairo. Here he was wildly acclaimed by a bewildered populace, which soon gave him the title of "Sultan Kebir", meaning "Great Sultan". From Cairo he was able to gain control of the Nile Delta.

But he was unable to break the resistance of the Mamelukes, who were supported by the Beduins of the Nile valley, although he made several thrusts as far as Aswan. Nor was he able to establish himself on the west coast of the Red Sea.

Consequently he was soon "encircled in his own conquests". The attempt to secure his flank against the newly arrived Turkish troops, who were supported by the English Navy, by waging war against Syria failed at Akko (March - May 1799). In the meantime Nelson had destroyed the French fleet, which was anchored at Abukir, in a battle at sea on 1st August 1798. The Mamelukes had appealed for help to the Sultan at Constantinople. Selim III sent an army of 40,000 men under the command of Mustafa Pasha to the Nile delta but it was decisively defeated by Murat's cavalry (land battle on 25th July 1799). Mustafa Pasha and half of the Janissaries were taken prisoners. Bonaparte, however, who was becoming increasingly convinced of the futility of the whole undertaking without reinforcements and accompanied by alarming news from Paris, decided to return clandestinely to France.

On 25th August 1799 he left Egypt and reached Paris on 16th October in time to execute the coup d'etat of 18th Brumaire. Unwittingly Napoleon had left behind in Egypt a man, who was to continue and complete the liberation of Egypt, Mehmed Ali. He was an Ottoman officer, born on 15th August 1769 in the Macedonian city of Karola.
In the meantime Selim III had been deposed by a conspiracy of the Jannissaries and was murdered in prison on 29th May 1807. He was succeeded as Sultan-Caliph by Mahmud II.

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